The Provisions of Oxford are often seen as the starting point of the modern parliament in Britain. But what were they and why were they so important?
Like his father before him, King John, Henry III had a difficult relationship with his barons. The First and Second Barons’ War between the kings and their barons had many similarities. They were both fought over money and power and the king and barons’ differing views on how these should be used.
When Henry came to throne he was only nine years old which meant that he had to rely on those around him with greater experience of government. Like King John, he was quite unprepared for the task before him. During his minority, Henry’s reign was dominated by powerful individuals and later in adulthood, his reign was dominated by the Lusignan faction. This caused resentment and tension amongst the other magnates.
Another sore spot for the magnates was Henry’s unsuccessful, but very expensive, foreign policies. Henry’s first foreign campaign was a complete failure and he only narrowly escaped being captured by the French. However, unlike his father’s return from the failed Battle of Bouvines, Henry was not met with open resistance and he managed to avoid confrontation by appeasing the barons with lavish hospitality and generous patronage. As long as Henry kept the barons on his side any opposition could be controlled.
In 1250 Henry decided to follow in his father’s footsteps and take the cross, planning to go on a crusade. He was allowed to collect a special tax called a papal tenth in order to finance this venture. However, the planned crusade came to nothing. Meanwhile, in Gascony, England’s last territory in France, a rebellion had erupted. Henry used the money he had raised from the papal tax to fund an expedition there.
Although this campaign was eventually successful in putting down the rebellion, when Henry returned he was in debt and royal resources were stretched thinly. But he refused to change his policies and collected even more money for another crusade. Yet again, this plan came to nothing and Henry instead focused on obtaining the Sicilian throne for his son. But this plan too collapsed and Henry was met with further military defeat following a rebellion in Wales. Just like King John, Henry was not a successful medieval warrior. By 1258 things had reached crisis point.
The Provisions of Oxford were drafted the same year by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort. De Montfort was leading opposition to King Henry III’s rule and the provisions forced Henry to accept a new form of government which attempted to limit royal power. Once Henry had agreed to the provisions, they were sent out to the sheriffs of the counties across England.
The Provisions of Oxford were quite radical as they placed the king under the authority of a Council of Fifteen. In the medieval understanding of the world, the king received his power directly from God, but the barons were directly intervening in this flow of power and authority. Of course, something similar had been tried with King John and Magna Carta and quickly abandoned.
Under these new provisions, the chief ministers, the Justiciar and Chancellor, were to be chosen by and responsible to the Council of Fifteen. Parliaments were also to be held three times each year and attended by representatives from the towns and shires. This was revolutionary. It was the most radical scheme of reform undertaken before that which followed the arrest and execution of King Charles I in the 1640s.
In addition to controlling the central government, provisions also tried to gain control of local government by investigating abuses of power in the localities. These reforms show the growing power of social groups beyond the major barons, including the local gentry, merchants and burgesses. Whilst it was the barons who were leading the reform of national and local government, they felt they could not ignore popular discontent. In this regard they introduced reforms that were even harmful to their own local interests.
Although Henry agreed to the Provisions of Oxford, it is doubtful whether he ever had any intention of observing them. Ultimately, Henry III was absolved from adhering to the reforms by the pope who intervened on his behalf, just as the Pope had done for John in the Magna Carta crisis. The struggle for control of the government also polarized the barons into those who supported the king and those who supported Simon de Montfort. This struggle ultimately led to the outbreak of the Second Barons’ War.
By Claire Kennan.
Claire is a Citizens 800 Project Officer and PhD researcher at Royal Holloway, University of London
